Question: What divisions were there among the blacks of Saint Domingue during the rebellions?

Answer:

During the revolt in 1791 one of the biggest divisions that we see among the rebels is over the question of what to do with the whites of the island. Some, such as Jeannot, who is mentioned in In the Camps of the Insurgents, wanted to kill all whites on the island, fearing that any who survived would try to reinstate slavery. Others, such as Jean-Francois, who is also mentioned in that source, were more lenient towards the whites, preferring to treat his prisoners humanely. During the revolt in 1793 we see similar divisions rise again. The rebels who were supported by the Spanish wanted total independence from France and all whites to be removed from the island, as can be seen in Insurgent Responses to Emancipation. Opposed to them were some free blacks and people of mixed race who supported continuing to live under the French republic as equals to the whites. There were also divisions between monarchists and republicans among both blacks and whites. This conflict mirrored the one going on in France at the time, where some fought to keep the monarchy in power, while others fought to establish a republic. The black rebels who were supported by the Spanish seem to favor monarchy over a republic, although they valued independence highest of all it seems. Those who supported the republic were a mixture of whites, blacks, and mixed race people who at least claimed to want a society where the races were equal. Finally, the white monarchists opposed the republican revolutionaries, but tried to win over the black rebels by playing on their monarchist sympathies. Evidence of all of this can be seen in the Decree of General Liberty, where the republicans try to win over blacks by promising them equality, while also saying that monarchist promises of freedom were false.

How did the abolitionist movement in late 18th century affect the slave revolt in Latin American plantations?

It was the late 18th century when the ideals of the abolition of slavery started to gain traction as a legitimate source of societal discourse and heated political debate. This phenomenon was mostly centered around the countries with large colonial territories where slave labors where commonly used. As abolitionist ideas started to be subjects of mainstream political debates in European mainlands, the question on whether to keep slavery as the rule of the land or abolish it also increasingly became subjects of widespread discourse both among educated white populace and some slaves or freed ex-slaves who were educated in various degrees. While slave revolt precedes such discourse on abolition of slavery, many plantation owners started to suspect such political and ideological climate where abolitionist ideas gained significant supports to be one of the main reason for growing unrest among slaves. One of the good example for this is Letter to the Marquis de Gallifet, a letter written by a plantation manager called Pierre Mossut. In this letter Mossut blames popularization of abolitionist writings to be one of the main causes of the slave revolts which had been plaguing the local plantations in 1790s’ Haiti. “The varied writings produced in your capital [Paris] in favor of the Negroes, the unbelievable discussions that led to the May 15 decree, writing that have long circulated in the colony and that the negroes knew about […] “. This shows that abolitionist political trends did have significant influence over growing awareness among slaves about the questions of their status and unfairness of their treatment.

What were the varying levels of treatment of captured whites in insurgent camps at the start of slave revolution in Haiti?

In the Camps of the Insurgents (1791) primary source document of Gros, a detailed account of his time spent as a prisoner held by rebel slaves. He explains, the whites that had been captured were chained and marched away from their burning houses and were executed two-by-two every twenty-four hours by the orders of Jeannot, a high-ranking insurgency leader. However, Jean-Francois, a general in chief with greater humility, was tired of the countless cruelties inflicted under the leadership of Jeannot, and had the man executed by firing squad. Jean-Francois visited the traumatized group of soldiers and set them free and vowed them safety. Despite Francois’ good will, the men were again thrown in chains until another man came to their aid and complained to central camp commander, which led to their release again. They were then escorted to an insurgent headquarters and kindly welcomed and fed by a lieutenant Jean-Louis who was proud of his civility. Louis would intimidate other chiefs toward peace, threatening them with all his might if they did not stop the terrible atrocities being inflicted upon whites. This passage shows the humility that existed in this time of violence and revolt. Many insurrection leaders sought a peaceful solution to the conflict that was bringing so much death and destruction to Haiti.

Question: How did disease affect the outcome of the Haitian Revolution?

Answer: Though diseases are only tiny microbes they virtually shape history in many ways. When Napolean took power of France in the early 1800’s and tried to reinstate a form a slavery back on the island through his brother Leclerc, yellow fever virtually killed off much of the French army including Leclerc himself. Though the Haitians had greater numbers and used guerilla war tactics the French still had better weapons and a better-trained army. It was because of the tropical diseases that the French army had no immunity too that the Haitian were able to secure their independence from France.

The disease is even mentioned after the written part of Napolean’s plan for the island on page 178. “Little went as Bonaparte planned, however. The resistance of Louverture and his partisans was fiercer and more successful than the French expected, the war against them dragged on for many months and cost the French significant casualties. Several weeks after writing the following letters, Leclerc died of yellow fever that had taken so many of his troops.”

Because of the massive loss of troops either from disease or warfare Leclerc in his final days even begs Napolean for more troops and reduces itself to more vicious tactics. This is seen in a final letter to Napolean on page 179. “If you wish to be master of Saint-Domingue, you must send me twelve thousand men without wasting a single day….If you cannot send me the troops I have asked for, and by the time I have requested, Saint-Domingue will be forever lost to France.”

In conclusion, the reason was Napolean ultimately failed at taking back power in Haiti was that the Haitians were fierce in their resistance and the huge loss that the French army took from yellow fever. Many of the French soldiers were not immune or even accustomed to tropical diseases like yellow fever compared to native Haitians. Because of this, they became more desperate and vicious, but even then they inevitably had to cut their losses and retreat leaving Haiti to itself.

Question: How did foreign powers influence the Haitian Revolution?

Answer: Foreign powers played a substantial role in the Haitian war. While the French government was the country who owned the colony, this did not prevent other foreign powers from intervening. The Spanish played a role, helping with supplies to rebel slaves. Eventually, they gave uniforms, land, and freedom to rebels. The British also played a role, blocking French naval ships in Europe and invading Haiti with British troops from Jamaica.

These foreign influences are evident in the “Decree of General Liberty” by Léger Félicité Sonthonax. External pressure from both Spain and Britain contributed to this decree. The Spanish were helping the slave rebels and the British were wanted by counterrevolutionaries for an invasion. While not ever directly stating these foreign powers, he says, “we found a horrible division among the whites who, separated by interest and opinion” (111). Representing the French, he stands up to other foreign powers, saying, “never forget that you fought for the French Republic, that of all the whites in the universe, the only ones that are your friends are the Frenchmen of Europe” (112). He continues pointing at the British and Spanish monarchies, saying:

“The French Republic wants all men to be free and equal with no color distinctions. Kings can only be content when they are surrounded by slaves.; they are the ones who sold you to the whites on the African coast; they are the tyrants in Europe who want this vile trade to continue. The republic adopts you among its children; these kings wanted only to load you down with chains or eliminate you” (112).”

In these passages, he takes all the blame away from the French government and puts the blame on foreign powers. He makes a clear contrast between the republic and kings. While it displays the effects of foreign power, it is also an example of the rhetoric used to get people onto the French sides. At this point, Haiti was viewed as an island with competing countries in a power struggle over the colony and not as the independent republic it would soon become.

After the “Decree of General Liberty”, it led to a division among the insurgents. Some joined the French side, while others remained with Spain. These divisions can be seen in the “Insurgent Responses to Emancipation”. In a letter from rebel leader Bramante Lazzary, tries to convince Toussaint Louverture to join the French side and leave the Spain. He equates kings with slavery. He says, “Spanish barbarism and slavery” and “the disgraceful way the Spanish villains treated our brave brother Ogé” (118-119). In his general decree, he says, “The nobility and the Spaniards want us to have only the whites in order to bring us back to the old order. But no, we are French; we are fighting for our freedom; we want to live free or die, that is the motto of all good French republicans” (120). In the above passages, he really emphasizes how the French are superior to the monarchy of the Spanish in their ideal republican government and freedom for all. During this time, Haiti was still a colony where countries competed to wield influence in the country for their own advantages.