Latin American History and Culture:

David covered the topic of the murder of a prominent Native rights activist in the wake of the Argentinian elections. The current ruling party the Republican Proposal is under intense criticism for not fully investigating the murder, many believing that perhaps they might have played a role in the incident or simply ruling it out as not important. This is important for the upcoming election because the opposition party is using these crimes against Native people against the current government in an attempt to draw up support for themselves. It also draws many connections from the colonial era touching on the treatment of Native people and their lands in relationship with governments.

Class Discussion:

Today we were divided into two groups and debated on the moral rights or wrongs of European colonialism in America. The first group was debating in favor of Colonialism stating that religiously the Pope was the word of God and God had given them permission and power to rule over people less than them. A quote from Aristotle, in particular, was used to say that the wise and prudent men will always rule over the more dimwitted despite the obvious physical strength. This was used in favor of enslavement because Europeans believed that they were much smarter compared to the Natives and used this as a moral justification. They also cited the natives lack of culture and science to being a savage group of people that need to be civilized, even dramatizing the Cannibal nature of them. The Spaniards felt it was their duty to save these people from themselves by teaching them Christianity and therefore salvation in the afterlife, however, they didn’t put much emphasis on this life.

In contrast, the 2nd group opposing the Spaniards moral right for colonization in America cited monks who had converted to the side favoring the natives. They mentioned how awful the Spaniards were treating the native people of this land, that what they were doing was not good and Christian. They were committing great sins by enslaving these peoples and even introducing them to the true God was not enough to justify such bad treatment.

Important Terms and Reading for Today:

Bartolome de las Casas- Spanish Dominican friar who defended the rights of Native Amercian people against the Spanish colonial rule

Juan Gines de Sepulveda- Spanish renaissance thinker with a humanist approach and a huge proponent of slavery in the New World

The New Land of the Indes- laws created by the Spanish King to prevent Exploitation and mistreatment of indigenous people

1. Readings on Latin America and its People

Announcements:

• There will be an in-class debate on Monday
• Reminder to bring LA&P book to next class period

Latin American History and Culture (2):

We had two LA history and culture posts today. Kate’s focused on the upcoming 2018 election in Venezuela. After Nicolas Meduro was elected president in 2013, the country has been in a state of turmoil – a state that was only heightened after Meduro managed to pass an “alternative assembly” that would allow him unchecked power in May 2017. Although it was hoped that the general outrage at Meduro’s actions would feed the opposition enough that he wouldn’t stand much of a chance in the next election, the most recent election results and analysts’ projections are proving disheartening. Many are questioning the integrity of the election, but it remains to be seen who will come out on top.

Carlos’ post discussed Hurricane Irma’s effects on Cuba, and debated where the blame ought to lie. While hurricanes are unquestionably powerful forces of nature not to be reckoned with, many places that find themselves frequently in the path of hurricanes – such as the Caribbean Islands – find ways to brace themselves. But Cuba’s architecture is worryingly fragile, and with the help of gale force winds, was responsible for some of the deaths that occurred during the disaster. Though it is pointed out that the Cuban government just doesn’t have the resources for this project, some still wonder why they aren’t focusing more effort on attempting to gather those resources for the safety of Cuban citizens.

Class Discussion:

Keep in mind: What role did the priests play in the colonization of Latin America? Try to understand the mindset and what would have been at stake.

We talked about the role of priests in colonial Latin America, and how that role changed over time. Christopher Columbus, for instance, didn’t initially bring any church-affiliated men over with him. Later, however, when Hernán Cortés was establishing his rule, he called for the Franciscans to join him in the New World. By 1559, priests were considered an essential part of the campaign. The tools used by priests in their evangelization of Latin America were: church construct, secular and regular clergy, congregation, and education (catechism).

There was a common idea that the natives of Central and Latin America were a blank slate, with no concept of their own religions or cultures. This assured the Europeans that it was both okay and necessary to bring them into the fold, imprint their own ways onto them. Towards the goal of conquering, the spreading of religion was also a way to organize society and people. However, the priests’ efforts were often met with what they would label betrayal. The native peoples of Latin America would frequently mix Christianity with their own beliefs instead of replacing their beliefs with European ones. Priests were also troubled by their inability to decide which of the twelve tribes of Israel the native were. This fed into an overarching theme tied to race that one could tell another’s worth by their physical appearance. In their descriptions of the New World people, Europeans claimed they had “fine bodies” and that it meant that they would make good servants of the Lord.

Important Terms & Readings for Today:

The Virgin of Guadalupe- a Roman Catholic title for the Blessed Virgin Mary associated with a venerated image enshrined within the Minor Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City

1. Human Traditions: #1 Gaspar Antonio Chi
2. Human Traditions: #9 Diego de Ocaña
3. ARP: Orders Given to the Twelve (1523)

Class Summary:

Today in class, we received a handout titled “Editing Wikipedia articles about History” and spent some time discussing the next step in our Wikipedia assignment. For this Friday, we will have to create an abstract and annotated bibliography of four sources regarding our respective topics. The library website can be very helpful for finding sources. While many successful projects use only English-language sources, documents in French, Spanish, and Portuguese are fair game. If you need help finding sources, you should schedule a research consultation at the library or meet with Professor Holt. However, it is best to meet with Professor Holt BEFORE Thursday, as she will laugh at you otherwise.

The theme for the main part of today’s discussion was bureaucracy in colonial Latin America. This topic signals a switch from the overarching theme of first encounters and military conquest to the consolidation of imperialism. To study this, we learn about the lived experiences of people involved in colonial rule, with a focus on Cortés in Mexico. One of the main questions regarding this theme is how the Spanish (and Portuguese) were able to rule such a large area from so far away. We will examine different factors that contributed to the difficulties and successes the Europeans experienced in attempting to do this. For example, how technologies of the time made communication difficult between Europe and the New World, and how the Spanish used architecture as a way of imposing their will upon the native peoples. The readings for today provide an indigenous perspective, a Spanish perspective, and a Spanish map that relate to this issue.

Readings:

• Latin America & Its People: “The Spiritual Conquest” to “Conclusion” (pages 83-95)
• “Two Images from the Codex Osuna”
• “An encomendero’s advice” and “An encomendero’s opinions”
• Richard Kagan “Projecting Order”

Passage:

The main passage we discussed during class was an excerpt from a letter written by Luís de Velasco, the Viceroy of New Spain to King Charles of Spain. Unfortunately, I was not able to find the letter, and therefore not able to reproduce the excerpt here. When we discussed this document, one of the main things we considered was the tone Velasco uses. Velasco complains about the King’s failure to reply to letters. This was an incredibly bold statement and demonstrates how frustrated inhabitants of the New World were. This separation from their motherland was a large part of what made it difficult for the Spanish and Portuguese to remain in control of Latin America. The tensions that arose because of this included corruption, competition, and prejudice. This became an issue because the Spanish in the New World were not supervised as closely as those in Spain and because they were having troubled controlling such a large area.

Links:

• http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/colonial/colonial-administration.htm
• https://nativeheritageproject.com/2013/06/15/las-castas-spanish-racial-classifications/
• http://0-www.jstor.org.dewey2.library.denison.edu/stable/pdf/10.1086/430679.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A2c4636b4fe87b9ea8b9203c3404f86e7
• http://0-www.jstor.org.dewey2.library.denison.edu/stable/pdf/3875309.pdf?refreqid=excelsior%3A46a25bb420af6bc4210f35618c4a7854

Terms:

• Viceroy: A person appointed by a monarch to rule an area
• Cabildo: The center of a government (physical building)
• Aldeias: Native villages organized by clergy or colonial governors
• Plaza mayor: a meeting place of merchants or authority figures

Exam Questions:

• What were some tensions present among the colonial rulers of Latin America (e.g. viceroys)?
• What strategies did Europeans use to maintain control of the New World?
• What role did architecture play in the colonization of Spanish America?
• How did the technology of the time period make it difficult for the Spanish to maintain control?

Announcements:

• First exam on Wednesday, 10/4/17
  • A good place to start studying is looking at the HAP homework assignments and class notes posts.
• Continue thinking about and working on Wikipedia projects.

LA History and Culture Post by Jacob

Cuban Doctors Against Brazil’s “Programa Mais Médicos”

Jacob’s news article was about Cuban doctors who are unhappy with Brazil’s “More Doctors Program.” It is a program where foreign doctors are brought into Brazil to provide healthcare services to remote and impoverished areas of Brazil. Many of these doctors come from Cuba. However, these Cuban doctors are paid less than doctors from other countries, while the Cuban government receives far more money per doctor sent to Brazil than the doctors get. Cuban doctors who have tried to fight for more money have been threatened by the Cuban government. They are told to either immediately return to Cuba or face exile. However, the program does provide much needed medical care to poor and remote regions of Brazil that would not otherwise receive it. For this reason, the UN has supported this program.

Class Discussion- Go Betweens

We talked about the role of go betweens, people who could interact with both European and indigenous societies, helping bridge the gap between the two. A key historical question that was discussed was, “What roles do cultural intermediaries play in Iberian colonization of Latin America?” We talked specifically about the cases of La Malinche, the indigenous woman who served as a translator for the Spanish conquistadors under Hernan Cortes and as Cortes’ mistress, Don Melchior Caruarayco, an Andean kuraka, and Domingos Fernandes Nobre, a mameluco slave trader in colonial Brazil. For La Malinche we discussed both her importance as a facilitator of communication between the Spanish and the Mexica, and her role as Cortes’ mistress. More generally, we talked about the sexual relations, both consensual and non-consensual, between European men and indigenous women in colonial Latin America. The children of these relationships were the mestizos or mamelucos, people of both European and indigenous heritage. These people were often intermediaries between the European and indigenous societies, belonging to both at the same time. Domingos Fernandes Nobre and Don Melchior Caruarayco were both talked about in small groups. Both of these men served as go betweens in different ways. Don Melchior Caruarayco was the leader of an Andean group and had to both lead them, while also making sure his people provided tribute and labor to the Spanish. Domingos Fernandes Nobre was a mameluco slave trader who had two identities, one Portuguese and one indigenous. He used this to build relations with both groups to capture and sell indigenous people as slaves to work on Portuguese sugar plantations. Finally, we also talked about the ways inheritance was carried out in Iberia and colonial Latin America, and how marriage was influenced by this.

Important Terms

• Mestizo or Mameluco: a person of both European and indigenous heritage.
• Encomienda: a system where Europeans, often conquistadors, would be given lands in the Americas and the labor of native peoples in the area to work it as a reward for their service to the king or the colonial government.
• Kurakas: traditional Andean leaders who held political, social, and religious significance. They were in charge of assigning work to the people of their communities and were supposed to protect them. They were used by the Spanish as intermediaries to control the native Andeans.

Links:

Kurakas and Commerce: A Chapter in the Evolution of Andean Society

Impact of the Mais Médicos (More Doctors) Program in reducing physician shortage in Brazilian Primary Healthcare.

Article about the role of mestizos in colonial Latin America

Potential Exam Questions:

How did the role of kurakas in Andean society change after the Spanish conquest?

Who were go betweens in colonial Latin America and what was their importance?

How do historians use historical biography to explain the past?

Announcements

• Midterm is next Wednesday, October 4^th
• Remember to include the “So what?” and “Why is this term important?” in answers
• Context and interpretation are important
• Be able to identify primary sources

Professor Holt showed the class a Digital History of the people and city of Teotihuacan. It was created by the de Young Museum. Teotihuacan was an ancient Mesoamerican indigenous city located in present-day New Mexico. The digital history shows us how a museum created an interactive exhibit online to share their latest exhibit. It is a way to share history and expand it to more people who cannot visit the exhibit in person. This provides us with more exposure as we think about our final project for this class and how history is shared in alternative formats.

Latin America in the news

Tristan did his news about Brazil backtracking mining in the Amazon. The class discussed the various powers of authority involved such as the President, his cabinet, Congress, private corporations, and even the Catholic Church. There are several arguments for the mining in the Amazon. One side is that it will help industry and has economic advantages. The other argument is that it is deforestation and disturbs indigenous groups. Our class also discussed international law versus national sovereignty. While organizations such as the United Nations can enact international laws, it can often come in conflict with the country’s sovereignty and their right to rule their own country.

Key term:

Columbian Exchange– the interaction between New and Old-World plants, animals, and disease. Defined in “The Columbian Exchange” by Alfred Crosby as the “Artificial re-establishment of connections through the commingling of Old and New World plants, animals, and bacteria.”[1]

Discussion

The first half of class was a discussion looking over The Conquest of Mexico Paintings, asking ourselves how painters use the past to present an argument in their works. In the conquest paintings, they portray the Spaniards as brave, gallant and sophisticated during war. Instead of painting the harsh realities of war, these paintings serve as a historical fantasy that glamourizes war. The color dominant color red can be interpreted as meaning power and pride. The mobility, large size, and mobility of the Spanish accomplishment are presented in the paintings. These paintings serve as propaganda for the Spanish.

Mural by Diego Rivera

The class then looked at a mural by Diego Rivera. It was painted after the Mexican Revolution and is considered a piece of monumental artwork. It shows the diversity of the indigenous. The style is modern and the vibrant color represents a lively and active society. There is a lot going on in the painting. The bottom shows carvings of agriculture scenes. It shows a harmonious society with certain degrees of hierarchy. The painting depicts how sophisticated the society was before the Spanish arrived at the height of civilization. It can be seen as a celebration of the indigenous people and their contributions to Mexico. The mural was created years after the conquest. Diego plays with how the past should be interpreted. He uses the past to make an argument about the indigenous people’s contribution. His mural shows how artists use the past to tell a story in their artwork.

The class then discussed the Alfred Crosby reading, “The Columbian Exchange”. While we have looked at many political and cultural factors, this article helps to examine the environmental factors and effects of the Spanish coming over to the New World. We talked about how food and crops traveled among the New and Old Worlds and how one staple crop can stimulate a population. For example, the potato in Ireland. However, there are also problems with a monoculture system such as when famine occurs.

Finally, the Historia Naturae by Johann Nieremberg was discussed. We went over several articles people chose from a variety of animals and plants. We can look at this source as a production of knowledge. It is a study of the history of science. He makes many comparisons to European plants or animals to better understand the new. He uses knowledge from the Old World to make sense of the New World. For example, when looking at animals he solely looks for utility. For Europeans, animals were only viewed as either bringing in wealth or making life easier. Some believed that God created animals for people to use. Another aspect to think about when examining a source like this is to think about how it was created. How would an outside European scientist collect this information? To some degree, he used information from the indigenous people. For example, for the Mournful tree, he says that the native used the flowers from the tree to dye their food. Further, some of the names are indigenous while others are names he made up. Like other primary resources, we must look at the point of view it was created and why it was created. This is a European scientist. Did he really want to understand the ecology and environment of the New World or not? Was this information used only to help facilitate European knowledge and to see what they could gain? These are just several questions that can be analyzed to better understand not only the primary source but also about the what is going on at the time in general. This source is a production of knowledge of the interaction with indigenous informants. It is constructed from aspects of both the Old and New World.

Up next…

These sources can serve as a transition from encounter and conquest to colonial rule. First, we must understand societies and how they come into contact. Then, we can look at how they set up colonial rule. The colonies were to be of service to the empire. This drives many of the sources written and actions of people during the time.

Think about …

• How to use historical biographies of everyday people to better understand the process of colonialization?
• How key are these people in the colonialization of the New World?
• Looking at the biographies, did these people have a choice between submitting to Spanish rule or remaining loyal to their indigenous communities?

Links to:

Diego Rivera murals

Teotihuacan Digital History

Foundation for the Advancement of Mesoamerican Studies

[1] Alfred Crosby, “The Columbian Exchange,” History Now, (June 2007), https://www.gilderlehrman.org/history-by-era/american-indians/essays/columbian-exchange.

Tenochititlan & Its Fall

Readings for today’s class:

• Victors & Vanquished by Schwartz : “Things Fall Apart” to “The Siege” 156-213
• Library of Congress, The Conquest of Mexico
• Tenochtitlan and Its Fall (Historical Analysis Prep)

Announcements

Midterm Exam guide

• Required skill: making argument with evidence and analysis of primary sources, with profound historical knowledge and historian’s thinking.
• Divided into three parts.
• First part: five responses out of eight questions. 20 minutes. Definition and analysis of historical significance of the key concepts of what we covered in Latin American history sessions so far.
• Second part: three responses out of four questions. 20 minutes. Provide short answer. Make an argument about the given topic, using your historical thinking and knowledge.
• Third part: One essay. 20 minutes. Choice of two quotes from certain documents. Identify the source of the quote, and contextualize it.
• Pay close attentions to the terms listed on the Midterm Guide paper.

Culture Blog Presentation

“Mexico City Earthquake” by Sofia

Based on a New York Times article the recent earthquake, the presentation mostly covered the step-by-step analysis of the article in lights of the recent development of the disaster. Photos from the heavily damaged urban buildings and small houses of Mexico City were shown, with presenter’s explanation about the extent of damage that affected the residents of the city. The Professor helped us to find the article linked on the bottom of the blog post, which shown digital graphic describing where exactly the earthquake started and how its impact reached the city. Apparently the epicenter of the earthquake was not located under the city itself – it was under the mountain ranges which spread eastwards to the city. There was an interesting discussion of how the areas where the ancient city used to be were relatively less affected than the urban center of the Mexico City. Professor reminded us to call back on the Inca stone bricks, which is said to have sustained earthquake damages far much better than the modern building structures. I asked the geographical question, about how the geography of the region affected the damage that was inflicted onto the city, which was answered with the digital graphic mentioned above.

Key questions for today’s class

• What factors account Spanish military victory at Tenochititlan?
• How do the victors looking back commemorate this event? What narrative do they create, and why?

Key Skills

• Primary source analysis – conflicting accounts of the events
• Visual analysis
• Historical commemoration & public art

Group Discussion

Professor Holt divided us into six groups, asking us to engage in discussions on the questions featured in Historical Analysis Prep paper handed to us in the last class. My teammates and I talked about how different the very details the accounts of King Moctezuma’s death depending on which party wrote such accounts. We also discussed what factors might have influenced the Spanish victory over the Mexica, and how the paintings describing the historical accounts of the Spanish conquest of the Mexica, which were painted by a Mexican painter who lived hundreds of years after the conquest, were implying about such events.

• The differences between the Spanish accounts vs. the indigenous accounts – both sides trying to push blame on the other side. Spanish claimed that Moctezuma, who tried to warn his people not to attack the Spaniards, was killed by a stone thrown at him, while the Mexica claimed that the Spaniards killed their king who was kidnapped and subjugated by the Spanish. The very tone of the accounts differed, with Spaniards more detached and calculating, and the indigenous much more personal and emotional.
• Possible factors that might have helped Spanish victory: Professor and the class engaged in prolonged discussion on the impact of Old World diseases, namely smallpox on the indigenous population of Mexico at the time Hernan Cortes and his soldiers stepped in. The factors such as advanced weaponry on the Spanish side and the shaky relationships between the Mexica and other indigenous groups were mentioned in group discussion.

Painting Analysis – The Conquest of Mexico

This session was very brief, and most of the discussions about these paintings were done in group discussion sessions. Professor asked whether these paintings seem like a propaganda material in favor of the Spaniards, glorifying and endorsing the Spanish accounts of the fall of Tenochititlan.

We covered only the first four paintings so far, both in general class discussion and the group discussion session where we talked about the fourth painting, The Death of Moctezuma by the Hands of His Own People. The very framing of the paintings was discussed, in which the Spanish were depicted in much more dominant position, while the indigenous less significant and more subdued and demoralized compared to the mighty-looking Spaniards. The paintings in general indeed seemed to be created in a purpose of commemorating the Spanish conquest, especially endorsing the Spanish part of the account. The very wording of the title of the fourth painting explicitly shows which part of the historical records these paintings drew their inspirations from.

Extra Questions

1. How much did the Spanish try to convert the local population into Christianity at the time of Cortes’ endeavor? Did such efforts play part in the Fall of Tenochititlan?
2. Which local indigenous tribes decided to help Cortes against the Mexica? What was their relationship with the Mexica like?
3. If the The Conquest of Mexico paintings were indeed intended to be a propaganda, then what was the context behind the creation of these paintings? Were there any needs for such propaganda material at the time these paintings emerged?

Extra scholarly sources for this class

Fitch, Nancy. “The Conquest of Mexico”. American Historical Association. Accessed on September 26th, 2017. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico

Palfrey, Dale Hoft. “The Spanish Conquest (1519-1527)”. Mexconnect. Accessed on September 26th, 2017. https://www.historians.org/teaching-and-learning/teaching-resources-for-historians/teaching-and-learning-in-the-digital-age/the-history-of-the-americas/the-conquest-of-mexico